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cc65
A C Compiler for 6502 Systems
(C) Copyright 1989 John R. Dunning
(C) Copyright 1998-2000 Ullrich von Bassewitz
(uz@musoftware.de)
Contents
--------
1. Overview
2. Usage
3. Input and output
4. Differences to the ISO standard
5. Extensions
6. Predefined macros
7. #pragmas
8. Bugs/Feedback
9. Copyright
1. Overview
-----------
cc65 was originally a C compiler for the Atari 8-bit machines written by
John R. Dunning. In prior releases I've described the compiler by listing
up the changes made by me. I have made many more changes in the meantime
(and rewritten major parts of the compiler), so I will no longer do that,
since the list would be too large and of no use to anyone. Instead I will
describe the compiler in respect to the ANSI/ISO C standard. In fact, I'm
planning a complete rewrite (that is, a complete new compiler) for the
next release, since there are too many limitations in the current code,
and removing these limitations would mean a rewrite of many more parts of
the compiler.
There is a separate document named "library.txt" that covers the library
available for the compiler. If you know C and are interested in doing
actual programming, the library documentation is probably of much more use
than this document.
If you need some hints for getting the best code out of the compiler, you
may have a look at "coding.txt" which covers some code generation issues.
2. Usage
--------
The compiler translates C files into files containing assembler code that
may be translated by the ca65 macroassembler (for more information about
the assembler, have a look at ca65.txt).
The compiler may be called as follows:
Usage: cc65 [options] file
-d Debug mode
-g Add debug info to object files
-h Print this help
-j Default characters are signed
-o name Name the output file
-s Print some statistics
-tx Set target system x
-v Verbose mode
-A Strict ANSI mode
-Cl Make local variables static
-Dsym[=defn] Define a symbol
-I path Set include directory
-O Optimize code
-Oi Optimize code, inline more code
-Or Enable register variables
-Os Inline some known functions
-T Include source as comment
-V Print version number
-W Suppress warnings
The -A option disables any compiler exensions. Have a look at section 5
for a discussion of compiler extensions. In addition, the macro
__STRICT_ANSI__
is defined, when compiling with -A.
-d enables debug mode, something that should not be needed for mere
mortals:-)
-g will cause the compiler to insert a .DEBUGINFO command into the
generated assembler code. This will cause the assembler to include all
symbols in a special section in the object file.
-h and -s print some statistics, nothing spectacular.
Using -j you can make the default characters signed. Since the 6502 has
no provisions for sign extending characters (which is needed on almost
any load operation), this will make the code larger and slower. A better
way is to declare characters explicitly as "signed" if needed. You can
also use "#pragma signedchars" for better control of this option (see
section 7).
The -t option is used to set the target system. The target system
determines things like the character set that is used for strings and
character constants. The following target systems are supported:
none
c64
c128
ace (no library support)
plus4
cbm610
pet (all CBM PET systems except the 2001)
nes (Nintendo Entertainment System)
apple2
geos
Using -v, the compiler will be somewhat more verbose if errors or warnings
are encountered.
-Cl will use static storage for local variables instead of storage on the
stack. Since the stack is emulated in software, this gives shorter and
usually faster code, but the code is no longer reentrant. The difference
between -Cl and declaring local variables as static yourself is, that
initializer code is executed each time, the function is entered. So when
using
void f (void)
{
unsigned a = 1;
...
}
the variable a will always have the value 1 when entering the function and
using -Cl, while in
void f (void)
{
static unsigned a = 1;
....
}
the variable a will have the value 1 only the first time, the function is
entered, and will keep the old value from one call of the function to the
next.
You may also use #pragma staticlocals to change this setting in your
sources (see section 7).
-I sets the directory where the compiler searches for include files. You
may use -I multiple times to add more than one directory to the search
list.
-O will enable an optimizer run over the produced code. Using -Oi, the
code generator will inline some code where otherwise a runtime functions
would have been called, even if the generated code is larger. This will
not only remove the overhead for a function call, but will make the code
visible for the optimizer.
-Or will make the compiler honor the "register" keyword. Local variables
may be placed in registers (which are actually zero page locations).
There is some overhead involved with register variables, since the old
contents of the registers must be saved and restored. In addition, the
current implementation does not make good use of register variables, so
using -Or may make your program even slower and larger. Use with care!
Using -Os will force the compiler to inline some known functions from the
C library like strlen. Note: This has two consequences:
* You may not use names of standard C functions in your own code. If
you do that, your program is not standard compliant anyway, but
using -Os will actually break things.
* The inlined string and memory functions will not handle strings or
memory areas larger than 255 bytes. Similar, the inlined is..()
functions will not work with values outside char range.
It is possible to concatenate the modifiers for -O. For example, to
enable register variables and inlining of known functions, you may use
-Ors.
-T will include the source code as comments in the generated code. This is
normally not needed.
-V prints the version number of the compiler. When submitting a bug
report, please include the operating system you're using, and the compiler
version.
The -W switch suppresses any warnings generated by the compiler. Since any
source file may be written in a manner that it will not produce compiler
warnings, using this option is usually not a good idea.
3. Input and output
-------------------
The compiler will accept one C file per invocation and create a file with
the same base name, but with the extension replaced by ".s". The output
file contains assembler code suitable for the use with the ca65 macro
assembler.
In addition to the paths named in the -I option on the command line, the
directory named in the environment variable CC65_INC is added to the
search path for include files on startup.
4. Differences to the ISO standard
----------------------------------
Here is a list of differences between the language, the compiler accepts,
and the one defined by the ISO standard:
* The compiler allows single line comments that start with //. This
feature is disabled in strict ANSI mode.
* The compiler allows unnamed parameters in parameter lists. The
compiler will not issue warnings about unused parameters that don't
have a name. This feature is disabled in strict ANSI mode.
* The compiler has some additional keywords:
asm, __asm__, fastcall, __fastcall__, __AX__, __EAX__, __func__
The keywords without the underlines are disabled in strict ANSI mode.
* The "const" modifier is available, but has no effect.
* The datatypes "float" and "double" are not available.
* The compiler does not support bit fields.
* Initialization of local variables is only possible for scalar data
types (that is, not for arrays and structs).
* Because of the "wrong" order of the parameters on the stack, there is
an additional macro needed to access parameters in a variable
parameter list in a C function.
* The compiler has only one symbol table. Because of that, it's not
possible to use the name of a local variable in a nested block in the
same function (global and local names are distinct, however).
+ The preprocessor does not understand the "defined" keyword in
expressions evaluated in #if statements.
* Functions may not return structs, struct assignment is not possible.
* The size of any struct referenced via a pointer may not exceed 256
bytes (this is because the Y register is used as index).
* In a function, the size of the parameters plus the size of all local
variables may not exceed 256 bytes (in fact, the limit may be even less
depeding on the complexity of your expressions).
* Part of the C library is available only with fastcall calling
conventions (see below). This means, that you may not mix pointers to
those functions with pointers to user written functions.
There may be some more minor differences, I'm currently not aware off. The
biggest problems are the missing const and float data types. With both
these things in mind, you should be able to write fairly portable code.
5. Extensions
-------------
This cc65 version has some extensions to the ISO C standard.
* The compiler allows // comments (like in C++ and in the proposed C9x
standard). This feature is disabled by -A.
* The compiler allows to insert assembler statements into the output
file. The syntax is
asm (<string literal>) ;
or
__asm__ (<string literal>) ;
The first form is in the user namespace and is disabled if the -A
switch is given.
The given string is inserted literally into the output file, and a
newline is appended. The statements in this string are not checked by
the compiler, so be careful!
The asm statement may be used inside a function and on global file
level.
* There is a special calling convention named "fastcall". This calling
convention is currently only usable for functions written in
assembler. The syntax for a function declaration using fastcall is
<return type> fastcall <function name> (<parameter list>)
or
<return type> __fastcall__ <function name> (<parameter list>)
An example would be
void __fastcall__ f (unsigned char c)
The first form of the fastcall keyword is in the user namespace and is
therefore disabled in strict ANSI mode.
For functions declared as fastcall, the rightmost parameter is not
pushed on the stack but left in the primary register when the function
is called. This will reduce the cost when calling assembler functions
significantly, especially when the function itself is rather small.
BEWARE: You must not declare C functions as fastcall! This will not
work for now and is not checked by the assembler, so you will get
wrong code.
* There are two pseudo variables named __AX__ and __EAX__. Both refer to
the primary register that is used by the compiler to evaluate
expressions or return function results. __AX__ is of type unsigned int
and __EAX__ of type long unsigned int respectively. The pseudo
variables may be used as lvalue and rvalue as every other variable.
They are most useful together with short sequences of assembler code.
For example, the macro
#define hi(x) (__AX__=(x),asm("\ttxa\n\tldx\t#$00",__AX__)
will give the high byte of any unsigned value.
* Inside a function, the identifier __func__ gives the name of the
current function as a string. Outside of functions, __func__ is
undefined.
Example:
#define PRINT_DEBUG(s) printf ("%s: %s\n", __func__, s);
The macro will print the name of the current function plus a given
string.
6. Predefined macros
--------------------
The compiler defines several macros at startup:
__CC65__ This macro is always defined. Its value is the version
number of the compiler in hex. Version 2.0.1 of the
compiler will have this macro defined as 0x0201.
__CBM__ This macro is defined if the target system is one of the
CBM targets.
__C64__ This macro is defined if the target is the c64 (-t c64).
__C128__ This macro is defined if the target is the c128 (-t c128).
__PLUS4__ This macro is defined if the target is the plus/4
(-t plus4).
__CBM610__ This macro is defined if the target is one of the CBM
600/700 family of computers (called B series in the US).
__PET__ This macro is defined if the target is the PET family of
computers (-t pet).
__NES__ This macro is defined if the target is the Nintendo
Entertainment System (-t nes).
__ATARI__ This macro is defined if the target is one of the Atari
computers (400/800/130XL/800XL). Note that there is no
runtime and C library support for atari systems.
__ACE__ This macro is defined if the target is Bruce Craigs ACE
operating system. Note that there is no longer runtime
and library support for ACE.
__APPLE2__ This macro is defined if the target is the Apple ][
(-t apple2).
__GEOS__ This macro is defined if you are compiling for the GEOS
system (-t geos).
__FILE__ This macro expands to a string containing the name of
the C source file.
__LINE__ This macro expands to the current line number.
__STRICT_ANSI__ This macro is defined to 1 if the -A compiler option was
given, and undefined otherwise.
__OPT__ Is defined if the compiler was called with the -O command
line option.
__OPT_i__ Is defined if the compiler was called with the -Oi command
line option.
__OPT_r__ Is defined if the compiler was called with the -Or command
line option.
__OPT_s__ Is defined if the compiler was called with the -Os command
line option.
7. #pragmas
-----------
The compiler understands some pragmas that may be used to change code
generation and other stuff.
#pragma bssseg (<name>)
This pragma changes the name used for the BSS segment (the BSS segment
is used to store uninitialized data). The argument is a string enclosed
in double quotes.
Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard
segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker
configuration file.
Beware: The startup code will zero only the default BSS segment. If you
use another BSS segment, you have to do that yourself, otherwise
uninitialized variables do not have the value zero.
Example:
#pragma bssseg ("MyBSS")
#pragma codeseg (<name>)
This pragma changes the name used for the CODE segment (the CODE segment
is used to store executable code). The argument is a string enclosed in
double quotes.
Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard
segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker
configuration file.
Example:
#pragma bssseg ("MyCODE")
#pragma dataseg (<name>)
This pragma changes the name used for the DATA segment (the DATA segment
is used to store initialized data). The argument is a string enclosed in
double quotes.
Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard
segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker
configuration file.
Example:
#pragma bssseg ("MyDATA")
#pragma rodataseg (<name>)
This pragma changes the name used for the RODATA segment (the RODATA
segment is used to store readonly data). The argument is a string
enclosed in double quotes.
Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard
segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker
configuration file.
Example:
#pragma bssseg ("MyRODATA")
#pragma regvaraddr (<const int>)
The compiler does not allow to take the address of register variables.
The regvaraddr pragma changes this. Taking the address of a register
variable is allowed after using this pragma, if the argument is not
zero. Using an argument of zero changes back to the default behaviour.
Beware: The C standard does not allow taking the address of a variable
declared as register. So your programs become non-portable if you use
this pragma. In addition, your program may not work. This is usually the
case if a subroutine is called with the address of a register variable,
and this subroutine (or a subroutine called from there) uses itself
register variables. So be careful with this #pragma.
Example:
#pragma regvaraddr(1) /* Allow taking the address
* of register variables
*/
#pragma signedchars (<const int>)
Changed the signedness of the default character type. If the argument
is not zero, default characters are signed, otherwise characters are
unsigned. The compiler default is to make characters unsigned since this
creates a lot better code.
#pragma staticlocals (<const int>)
Use variables in the bss segment instead of variables on the stack. This
pragma changes the default set by the compiler option -Cl. If the argument
is not zero, local variables are allocated in the BSS segment, leading to
shorter and in most cases faster, but non-reentrant code.
#pragma zpsym (<name>)
Tell the compiler that the - previously as external declared - symbol with
the given name is a zero page symbol (usually from an assembler file).
The compiler will create a matching import declaration for the assembler.
Example:
extern int foo;
#pragma zpsym ("foo"); /* foo is in the zeropage */
8. Bugs/Feedback
----------------
If you have problems using the compiler, if you find any bugs, or if
you're doing something interesting with the compiler, I would be glad to
hear from you. Feel free to contact me by email (uz@musoftware.de).
9. Copyright
------------
This is the original compiler copyright:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
-*- Mode: Text -*-
This is the copyright notice for RA65, LINK65, LIBR65, and other
Atari 8-bit programs. Said programs are Copyright 1989, by John R.
Dunning. All rights reserved, with the following exceptions:
Anyone may copy or redistribute these programs, provided that:
1: You don't charge anything for the copy. It is permissable to
charge a nominal fee for media, etc.
2: All source code and documentation for the programs is made
available as part of the distribution.
3: This copyright notice is preserved verbatim, and included in
the distribution.
You are allowed to modify these programs, and redistribute the
modified versions, provided that the modifications are clearly noted.
There is NO WARRANTY with this software, it comes as is, and is
distributed in the hope that it may be useful.
This copyright notice applies to any program which contains
this text, or the refers to this file.
This copyright notice is based on the one published by the Free
Software Foundation, sometimes known as the GNU project. The idea
is the same as theirs, ie the software is free, and is intended to
stay that way. Everybody has the right to copy, modify, and re-
distribute this software. Nobody has the right to prevent anyone
else from copying, modifying or redistributing it.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
In acknowledgment of this copyright, I will place my own changes to the
compiler under the same copyright. Please note however, that the library
and all binutils are covered by another copyright, and that I'm planning
to do a complete rewrite of the compiler, after which the compiler
copyright will also change.
For the list of changes requested by this copyright see newvers.txt.